Evening Primrose Oil
Evening primrose oil (EPO) is most commonly used for relieving inflammatory conditions associated with women's health, for example, premenstrual syndrome, fibrocystic breasts, and menopausal symptoms, such as hot flashes.
Sixty to 80 percent of evening primrose oil is the essential fatty acid linoleic acid. Gamma-linoleic acid (GLA) is synthesized by the body from linoleic acid and comprises 8-14 percent of the oil. GLA is a precursor of prostaglandin E1 (PGE1), a deficiency of which has been documented in some women with premenstrual syndrome (PMS) and cyclical breast pain. Since decreased levels of PGE1 can increase the pain-inducing effect of the hormone prolactin on breast tissue, it is thought that this may be a primary cause of many of the symptoms associated with PMS.
In addition to its applications for specific detrimental effects of the menstrual cycle, theories for non-gender related uses of evening primrose oil are prevalent. PGE1 has beneficial anti-inflammatory, antiplatelet, and vasodilating properties. Because essential fatty acids are claimed to have positive effects on certain skin diseases, supplementation with evening primrose oil could also alleviate eczema and dermatitis. In a double-blind, crossover study in men taking either fish oil alone or fish oil plus evening primrose oil, the combination led to a significant 12 percent decrease in atherogenic (related to deterioration of artery walls) and inflammatory markers, whereas fish oil alone led to a 6 percent decrease in the same markers. Finally, evening primrose oil has been demonstrated to decrease platelet aggregation and atherosclerotic plaques, both associated with inflammatory pathways.
Evening primrose oil appears to be quite safe. Because it hinders platelet aggregation, EPO supplements may thin the blood and may increase the anticoagulant effect of drugs such as warfarin. The most common dose of evening primrose oil is 1-4 grams per day of a preparation containing approximately 10 percent GLA.
Borage Oil
Borage seeds are a rich source of a gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), whose medicinal properties have been demonstrated in areas such as anti-inflammatory activity, immune-system modulation, and management of atopic eczema (excessive proliferation of skin cells) and other skin maladies.
Borage seed oil typically contains 20-30 percent GLA, a naturally occurring polyunsaturated fatty acid of the omega-6 series. (GLA can also be found in evening primrose oil and black currant oil.) GLA favors the formation of anti-inflammatory and anticlotting precursors. Specifically, GLA is transformed in the human body as di-homo gamma linolenic acid (DGLA), which leads to the formation of the 1-series prostaglandins (PG1s) rather than the formation of the 2-series prostaglandins (PG2s). PG2s have proinflammatory and clotting properties. DGLA also suppresses the formation of 4-series leukotrienes, which are also proinflammatory.
Studies have shown that individuals with active rheumatoid arthritis, an inflammatory condition, experienced an improvement in their symptoms when they were given between 322 and 1,960 mg daily of GLA in the form of a borage oil supplement for six months. In another study, a subgroup of a larger sample population experienced some relief of their atopic eczema when taking 345 mg of GLA (1,500 mg borage oil) for twenty-four weeks. Other studies in humans and animals have shown the positive effect of GLA supplementation on the stimulation of white blood cells and on the promotion of anti-inflammatory metabolites.
Borage seed oil is generally considered safe. The freshness of the oil is important. The oil contains a significant amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids (i.e., GLA, alpha-linoleic acid, etc.) that could be damaged in the presence of oxygen (oxidation) and UV light. Under these conditions, the oil would become strong tasting and smelly (rancid). The presence of naturally occurring vitamin E (an antioxidant) can be found in the oil. Blending additional amounts of vitamin E or other antioxidants , such as vitamin C or rosemary, helps to keep the oil more stable. Borage seed oil should be kept refrigerated to slow the oxidative process. Recommended doses of GLA range from 100 to 300 mg per day (one tablespoon of the oil or one to three softgels daily). There may be variations between different brands, based on the extent of the oil extraction from the seed.
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